Top 5: Independent Bookshops
Hey guys! Here are my top five independent bookshops in the UK! What are your favourite bookshops? Have you visited any of the ones I mentioned? Let me know in the comments! Enjoy :)
Bookshops mentioned:
The Minister Gate Bookshop, York
The Bookshop, Wigtown
The Hellenic Bookservice, Islington, London
The London Review Bookshop, Camden, London
Voltaire and Rousseau, Glasgow
Goodreads:
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5 Jaquar - Verdi x Indoctro - Pref. x Voltaire - Pref.
De stam van de Grand Prix-springhengst Oramé wordt in deze veiling maar liefst vier keer vertegenwoordigd. Deze Jaguar komt uit een halfzus van veilingveulen Jet Set. Beide veulens stammen af van de olympische springhengst VDL Groep Verdi TN N.O.P. Jaguar komt net als de op SELL geveilde, KWPN aangewezen hengst Detroit (Zürich) uit de 1.35m geklasseerde elitemerrie Ultramee (Indoctro), een halfzus van het 1.40m springpaard Viramee (Indoctro) en drie 1.30m springpaarden. Haar moeder Miramee (Voltaire) kennen we als halfzus van de Grand Prix-hengst Oramé, waarmee Jur Vrieling zeer succesvol was voordat de hengst naar de USA vertrok.
Naast de KWPN-hengst Oramé bracht Iramee o.a. de elitemerrie Tiramee (Natal) en het 1.30m springpaard Almee (For Pleasure) en is ze de grootmoeder van het internationaal springpaard Warland VDL (Emilion) van Guiseppe d’Onofrio en het 1.40m springpaard Ziramon VDL (Marlon). Verder uit deze stam komen de 1.55m springhengst Zavall VDL en de Grand Prix springpaarden Mr. Itt, Vendredi (Hors la Loi II) met Jeffery Welles en Olduvai (Narcos II) met Shane Sweetnam.
The dam line of the Grand Prix stallion Oramé is represented in this auction no less than four times. This Jaguar descends from a half sister of auction foal Jet Set. Both foals have the Olympic showjumping stallion VDL Groep Verdi TN N.O.P. as sire. This Jaguar is like former SELL auction foal Detroit (Zürich), who was invited for the KWPN Performance Test, bred out of the 1.35m jumping Elite mare Ultramee (Indoctro), a half sister of the 1.40m showjumper Viramee (Indoctro) and three 1.30m showjumpers. Her dam Miramee (Voltaire) is known as sister of the Grand Prix stallion Orame who was very successfull with Jur Vrieling before moving to the USA.
Besides the KWPN stallion Oramé, Iramee produced the Elite mare Tiramee (Natal) and the 1.30m showjumper Almee (For Pleasure) and she is the grandam of the international showjumper Warland VDL (Emilion) with Guiseppe D'Onofrio and the 1.40m showjumper Ziramon VDL (Marlon). Also from this family comes the 1.55m jumping KWPN stallion Zavall VDL and the Grand Prix showjumpers Mr. Itt, Vendredi (Hors la Loi II) with Jeffery Welles and Olduvai (Narcos II) with Shane Sweetnam.
Justice - cabaret voltaire 27/10/06
justice - killing in the name of
No doubt vh Vlierhof Harley VDL x Bordeaux VDL
PHILOSOPHY - David Hume
David Hume is one of Scotland’s greatest philosophers (Adam Smith is another, about whom we also have a film His claim to greatness lies in his appreciation of ordinary experience, his descriptions of consciousness and his humane, tolerant approach to religious disputes. If you like our films, take a look at our shop (we ship worldwide):
FURTHER READING
“The 18th-century writer David Hume is one of the world’s great philosophical voices because he hit upon a key fact about human nature: that we are more influenced by our feelings than by reason. This is, at one level, possibly a great insult to our self-image, but Hume thought that if we could learn to deal well with this surprising fact, we could be (both individually and collectively) a great deal calmer and happier than if we denied it...”
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Scottish Enlightenment of the 18th Century
Scottish Enlightenment of the 18th Century
Prof.Merin Simi Raj
Dept. Of Humanities & Social Sciences
IIT Madras
St. Stephen's Church and Catherine of Bourbon's Tomb in Nijmegen, The Netherlands
St. Stephen's Church and Catherine of Bourbon's Tomb in Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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The Real Adam Smith: Morality and Markets - Full Video
The Real Adam Smith: A Personal Exploration by Johan Norberg, takes an intriguing, two-part look at Smith and the evolution and relevance of his ideas today, both economic and ethical. It’s difficult to imagine that a man who lived with horse drawn carriages and sailing ships would foresee our massive 21st century global market exchange, much less the relationship between markets and morality. But Adam Smith was no ordinary 18th century figure. Considered the “father of modern economics,” Smith was first and foremost a moral philosopher. The revolutionary ideas he penned in The Wealth of Nations and The Theory of Moral Sentiments, changed the world.
Morality and Markets is the first hour, which takes an intriguing look at Smith, his background and the evolution of his ideas, both economic and ethical. Norberg travels Europe to locales where Smith was born, educated and spent his life teaching, writing and advocating his revolutionary ideas on markets and human morality.
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Scottish Enlightenment | Wikipedia audio article
This is an audio version of the Wikipedia Article:
Scottish Enlightenment
Listening is a more natural way of learning, when compared to reading. Written language only began at around 3200 BC, but spoken language has existed long ago.
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The only true wisdom is in knowing you know nothing.
- Socrates
SUMMARY
=======
The Scottish Enlightenment (Scots: Scots Enlichtenment, Scottish Gaelic: Soillseachadh na h-Alba) was the period in 18th and early 19th century Scotland characterised by an outpouring of intellectual and scientific accomplishments. By the eighteenth century, Scotland had a network of parish schools in the Lowlands and four universities. The Enlightenment culture was based on close readings of new books, and intense discussions took place daily at such intellectual gathering places in Edinburgh as The Select Society and, later, The Poker Club as well as within Scotland's ancient universities (St Andrews, Glasgow, Edinburgh and Aberdeen).Sharing the humanist and rationalist outlook of the European Enlightenment of the same time period, the thinkers of the Scottish Enlightenment asserted the importance of human reason combined with a rejection of any authority that could not be justified by reason. In Scotland, the Enlightenment was characterised by a thoroughgoing empiricism and practicality where the chief values were improvement, virtue, and practical benefit for the individual and society as a whole.
Among the fields that rapidly advanced were philosophy, political economy, engineering, architecture, medicine, geology, archaeology, law, agriculture, chemistry and sociology. Among the Scottish thinkers and scientists of the period were Francis Hutcheson, David Hume, Adam Smith, Dugald Stewart, Thomas Reid, Robert Burns, Adam Ferguson, John Playfair, Joseph Black and James Hutton.
The Scottish Enlightenment had effects far beyond Scotland, not only because of the esteem in which Scottish achievements were held outside Scotland, but also because its ideas and attitudes were carried all over Europe and across the Atlantic world as part of the Scottish diaspora, and by European and American students who studied in Scotland.
7. Utilitarianism and Liberty, John Stuart Mill
Foundations of Modern Social Thought (SOCY 151)
Adam Smith's ideas about self-interest should be understood as a precursor in some ways to John Stuart Mill's thinking on utilitarianism. Professor Szelenyi discusses, but does not resolve, the complexities of Adam Smith's moral and ethical positions staked out in The Theory of Moral Sentiments—including a focus on sympathy—and the most widespread economic interpretation of Smith and The Wealth of Nations that he is the economist of self-interest. One way to reconcile these so-called two Smiths is that, as social beings, it is in our self-interest to express benevolence and sympathy toward others. Mill, the student of Bentham since a very young age, humanizes the theory of utilitarianism. Perhaps he should be best remembered for his staunch views on liberty: liberty must never be compromised for the sake of expediency.
00:00 - Chapter 1. Smith in a Historical Context
07:04 - Chapter 2. The Theory of Moral Sentiments: Major Themes
13:29 - Chapter 3. The Wealth of Nations: Major Themes; Self-Interest and The Common Good
21:24 - Chapter 4. The Labor Theory of Value; The Invisible Hand
27:17 - Chapter 5. Mill in a Historical Context
35:34 - Chapter 6. Utilitarianism: Major Themes
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This course was recorded in Fall 2009.
James Boswell | Wikipedia audio article
This is an audio version of the Wikipedia Article:
James Boswell
00:00:45 1 Early life
00:04:09 2 European travels
00:05:21 3 Mature life
00:10:38 4 Boswell's iLife of Samuel Johnson/i
00:11:54 5 Slavery
00:12:49 6 Discovery of papers
00:14:12 7 Freemasonry
00:14:40 8 Literary depictions
00:16:00 9 Major works
00:17:08 10 Published journals
Listening is a more natural way of learning, when compared to reading. Written language only began at around 3200 BC, but spoken language has existed long ago.
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The only true wisdom is in knowing you know nothing.
- Socrates
SUMMARY
=======
James Boswell, 9th Laird of Auchinleck (; 29 October 1740 – 19 May 1795), was a Scottish biographer and diarist, born in Edinburgh. He is best known for the biography he wrote of his friend and contemporary, the English literary figure Samuel Johnson, which is commonly said to be the greatest biography written in the English language.Boswell's surname has passed into the English language as a term (Boswell, Boswellian, Boswellism) for a constant companion and observer, especially one who records those observations in print. In A Scandal in Bohemia, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's character Sherlock Holmes affectionately says of Dr. Watson, who narrates the tales, I am lost without my Boswell.
List of minor planets named after people | Wikipedia audio article
This is an audio version of the Wikipedia Article:
00:00:07 1 Science
00:00:16 1.1 Astronomers
00:00:25 1.1.1 Amateur
00:03:28 1.1.2 Professional
00:25:55 1.1.3 Planetarium directors
00:26:40 1.1.4 Relatives of astronomers
00:28:01 1.2 Biologists
00:29:07 1.3 Cartographers
00:29:27 1.4 Chemists
00:31:12 1.5 Computer scientists and programmers
00:32:13 1.6 Mathematicians
00:36:28 1.7 Physicists
00:43:23 1.8 Physiologists
00:43:49 1.9 Psychologists, psychiatrists, and psychoanalysts
00:44:53 1.10 Space exploration
00:50:14 1.11 Other scientists, engineers and inventors
00:54:32 2 Monarchs and royalty
01:00:50 3 Nobility
01:01:04 4 Politicians and statespeople
01:02:49 5 Teachers
01:02:58 5.1 High school/technical school teachers
01:06:17 5.2 College/University professors
01:07:14 6 War heroes and veterans
01:07:24 6.1 World War II heroes and veterans
01:08:30 6.2 Other war heroes
01:08:59 6.3 Children died in war
01:09:27 7 Religion
01:10:39 8 Explorers
01:12:21 9 Historians
01:13:13 10 Other social scientists
01:13:48 11 Philosophers
01:16:41 12 The arts
01:16:50 12.1 Literature
01:16:59 12.1.1 General authors
01:19:18 12.1.2 Novelists
01:23:23 12.1.3 Poets
01:25:06 12.1.4 Playwrights
01:25:59 12.1.5 Satirists
01:26:27 12.1.6 Other
01:26:45 12.2 Visual arts
01:32:12 12.3 Architects
01:33:02 12.4 Classical music
01:33:11 12.4.1 Composers
01:41:28 12.4.2 Conductors
01:42:08 12.4.3 Opera Singers
01:42:52 12.4.4 Others
01:44:02 13 Entertainment
01:44:12 13.1 Popular music
01:52:55 13.2 Film, TV and Theatre
02:01:32 13.3 Sports
02:01:40 13.3.1 Olympic medalists
02:02:49 13.3.2 Other sports
02:05:04 13.4 Other entertainers
02:05:20 14 Contest winners
02:05:29 14.1 Broadcom MASTERS
02:05:52 14.2 Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge
02:08:05 14.3 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair
02:17:02 14.4 Intel Science Talent Search
02:20:05 15 Editors and publishers
02:20:45 16 Discoverers' relatives
02:21:41 17 Others
02:24:20 18 Fictional characters
02:24:30 18.1 Characters in classic fiction
02:27:44 18.2 Characters in modern fiction
02:32:22 19 See also
Listening is a more natural way of learning, when compared to reading. Written language only began at around 3200 BC, but spoken language has existed long ago.
Learning by listening is a great way to:
- increases imagination and understanding
- improves your listening skills
- improves your own spoken accent
- learn while on the move
- reduce eye strain
Now learn the vast amount of general knowledge available on Wikipedia through audio (audio article). You could even learn subconsciously by playing the audio while you are sleeping! If you are planning to listen a lot, you could try using a bone conduction headphone, or a standard speaker instead of an earphone.
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Speaking Rate: 0.7856361955711405
Voice name: en-AU-Wavenet-B
I cannot teach anybody anything, I can only make them think.
- Socrates
SUMMARY
=======
This is a list of minor planets named after people, both real and fictional.
David Hume | Wikipedia audio article
This is an audio version of the Wikipedia Article:
David Hume
Listening is a more natural way of learning, when compared to reading. Written language only began at around 3200 BC, but spoken language has existed long ago.
Learning by listening is a great way to:
- increases imagination and understanding
- improves your listening skills
- improves your own spoken accent
- learn while on the move
- reduce eye strain
Now learn the vast amount of general knowledge available on Wikipedia through audio (audio article). You could even learn subconsciously by playing the audio while you are sleeping! If you are planning to listen a lot, you could try using a bone conduction headphone, or a standard speaker instead of an earphone.
You can find other Wikipedia audio articles too at:
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The only true wisdom is in knowing you know nothing.
- Socrates
SUMMARY
=======
David Hume (; born David Home; 7 May 1711 NS (26 April 1711 OS) – 25 August 1776) was a Scottish Enlightenment philosopher, historian, economist, and essayist, who is best known today for his highly influential system of philosophical empiricism, skepticism, and naturalism. Hume's empiricist approach to philosophy places him with John Locke, George Berkeley, Francis Bacon and Thomas Hobbes as a British Empiricist. Beginning with his A Treatise of Human Nature (1739), Hume strove to create a total naturalistic science of man that examined the psychological basis of human nature. Against philosophical rationalists, Hume held that passion rather than reason governs human behaviour. Hume argued against the existence of innate ideas, positing that all human knowledge is founded solely in experience; Hume thus held that genuine knowledge must either be directly traceable to objects perceived in experience, or result from abstract reasoning about relations between ideas which are derived from experience, calling the rest nothing but sophistry and illusion, a dichotomy later given the name Hume's fork.
In what is sometimes referred to as Hume's problem of induction, he argued that inductive reasoning and belief in causality cannot be justified rationally; instead, our trust in causality and induction result from custom and mental habit, and are attributable only to the experience of constant conjunction of events. This is because we can never actually perceive that one event causes another, but only that the two are always conjoined. Accordingly, to draw any causal inferences from past experience it is necessary to presuppose that the future will resemble the past, a presupposition which cannot itself be grounded in prior experience.Hume's opposition to the teleological argument for God's existence, the argument from design, is generally regarded as the most intellectually significant attempt to rebut the argument prior to Darwinism.
Hume was also a sentimentalist who held that ethics are based on emotion or sentiment rather than abstract moral principle, famously proclaiming that Reason is, and ought only to be the slave of the passions. Hume's moral theory has been seen as a unique attempt to synthesise the modern sentimentalist moral tradition to which Hume belonged, with the virtue ethics tradition of ancient philosophy, with which Hume concurred in regarding traits of character, rather than acts or their consequences, as ultimately the proper objects of moral evaluation. Hume maintained an early commitment to naturalistic explanations of moral phenomena, and is usually taken to have first clearly expounded the is–ought problem, or the idea that a statement of fact alone can never give rise to a normative conclusion of what ought to be done. Hume also denied that humans have an actual conception of the self, positing that we experience only a bundle of sensations, and that the self is nothing more than this bundle of causally-connected perceptions. Hume's compatibilist theory of free will takes causal determinism as fully compatible with human freedom.Hume influenced utilitarianism, logical positivism, Immanuel Kant, the philosophy of science, early analytic philosophy, cognitive science, theology, and other movements and thinkers. Kant himself credited Hume as the spur to his philosophical thought who had awakened him from his dogmatic slumbers.
David Hume | Wikipedia audio article
This is an audio version of the Wikipedia Article:
David Hume
Listening is a more natural way of learning, when compared to reading. Written language only began at around 3200 BC, but spoken language has existed long ago.
Learning by listening is a great way to:
- increases imagination and understanding
- improves your listening skills
- improves your own spoken accent
- learn while on the move
- reduce eye strain
Now learn the vast amount of general knowledge available on Wikipedia through audio (audio article). You could even learn subconsciously by playing the audio while you are sleeping! If you are planning to listen a lot, you could try using a bone conduction headphone, or a standard speaker instead of an earphone.
You can find other Wikipedia audio articles too at:
You can upload your own Wikipedia articles through:
The only true wisdom is in knowing you know nothing.
- Socrates
SUMMARY
=======
David Hume (; born David Home; 7 May 1711 NS (26 April 1711 OS) – 25 August 1776) was a Scottish Enlightenment philosopher, historian, economist, and essayist, who is best known today for his highly influential system of philosophical empiricism, skepticism, and naturalism. Hume's empiricist approach to philosophy places him with John Locke, George Berkeley, Francis Bacon and Thomas Hobbes as a British Empiricist. Beginning with his A Treatise of Human Nature (1739), Hume strove to create a total naturalistic science of man that examined the psychological basis of human nature. Against philosophical rationalists, Hume held that passion rather than reason governs human behaviour. Hume argued against the existence of innate ideas, positing that all human knowledge is founded solely in experience; Hume thus held that genuine knowledge must either be directly traceable to objects perceived in experience, or result from abstract reasoning about relations between ideas which are derived from experience, calling the rest nothing but sophistry and illusion, a dichotomy later given the name Hume's fork.
In what is sometimes referred to as Hume's problem of induction, he argued that inductive reasoning and belief in causality cannot be justified rationally; instead, our trust in causality and induction result from custom and mental habit, and are attributable only to the experience of constant conjunction of events. This is because we can never actually perceive that one event causes another, but only that the two are always conjoined. Accordingly, to draw any causal inferences from past experience it is necessary to presuppose that the future will resemble the past, a presupposition which cannot itself be grounded in prior experience.Hume's opposition to the teleological argument for God's existence, the argument from design, is generally regarded as the most intellectually significant attempt to rebut the argument prior to Darwinism.
Hume was also a sentimentalist who held that ethics are based on emotion or sentiment rather than abstract moral principle, famously proclaiming that Reason is, and ought only to be the slave of the passions. Hume's moral theory has been seen as a unique attempt to synthesise the modern sentimentalist moral tradition to which Hume belonged, with the virtue ethics tradition of ancient philosophy, with which Hume concurred in regarding traits of character, rather than acts or their consequences, as ultimately the proper objects of moral evaluation. Hume maintained an early commitment to naturalistic explanations of moral phenomena, and is usually taken to have first clearly expounded the is–ought problem, or the idea that a statement of fact alone can never give rise to a normative conclusion of what ought to be done. Hume also denied that humans have an actual conception of the self, positing that we experience only a bundle of sensations, and that the self is nothing more than this bundle of causally-connected perceptions. Hume's compatibilist theory of free will takes causal determinism as fully compatible with human freedom.Hume influenced utilitarianism, logical positivism, Immanuel Kant, the philosophy of science, early analytic philosophy, cognitive science, theology, and other movements and thinkers. Kant himself credited Hume as the spur to his philosophical thought who had awakened him from his dogmatic slumbers.
Thomas Carlyle | Wikipedia audio article
This is an audio version of the Wikipedia Article:
Thomas Carlyle
00:01:30 1 Early life and influences
00:04:32 2 Writings
00:04:41 2.1 Early writings
00:05:46 2.2 iSartor Resartus/i
00:08:03 2.2.1 Everlasting Yea and No
00:09:23 2.2.2 Worship of Silence and Sorrow
00:10:11 2.3 iThe French Revolution/i
00:11:53 2.4 iHeroes and Hero Worship/i
00:18:17 2.5 iPast and Present/i
00:18:48 2.6 Later work
00:22:57 2.6.1 iFrederick the Great/i
00:25:25 2.6.2 Last works
00:26:13 3 London Library
00:27:21 4 Private life
00:28:35 4.1 Marriage
00:29:46 4.2 Later life
00:30:17 4.3 Death
00:30:40 4.4 Biography
00:32:15 5 Influence
00:35:19 6 Works
00:38:56 7 Definitions
00:42:58 8 See also
00:43:26 9 Notes
00:43:34 10 Bibliography
00:44:31 11 Further reading
00:47:11 12 External links
Listening is a more natural way of learning, when compared to reading. Written language only began at around 3200 BC, but spoken language has existed long ago.
Learning by listening is a great way to:
- increases imagination and understanding
- improves your listening skills
- improves your own spoken accent
- learn while on the move
- reduce eye strain
Now learn the vast amount of general knowledge available on Wikipedia through audio (audio article). You could even learn subconsciously by playing the audio while you are sleeping! If you are planning to listen a lot, you could try using a bone conduction headphone, or a standard speaker instead of an earphone.
You can find other Wikipedia audio articles too at:
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The only true wisdom is in knowing you know nothing.
- Socrates
SUMMARY
=======
Thomas Carlyle (4 December 1795 – 5 February 1881) was a Scottish philosopher, satirical writer, essayist, translator, historian, mathematician, and teacher. Considered one of the most important social commentators of his time, he presented many lectures during his lifetime with certain acclaim in the Victorian era. One of those conferences resulted in his famous work On Heroes, Hero-Worship, and The Heroic in History where he explains that the key role in history lies in the actions of the Great Man, claiming that the history of the world is but the biography of great men.A respected historian, his 1837 book The French Revolution: A History was the inspiration for Charles Dickens' 1859 novel A Tale of Two Cities, and remains popular today. Carlyle's 1836 Sartor Resartus is a notable philosophical novel.
A great polemicist, Carlyle coined the term the dismal science for economics, in his essay Occasional Discourse on the Negro Question. He also wrote articles for the Edinburgh Encyclopædia, and his Occasional Discourse on the Negro Question (1849) remains controversial. Once a Christian, Carlyle lost his faith while attending the University of Edinburgh, later adopting a form of deism.In mathematics, he is known for the Carlyle circle, a method used in quadratic equations and for developing ruler-and-compass constructions of regular polygons.
Science in the Age of Enlightenment | Wikipedia audio article
This is an audio version of the Wikipedia Article:
00:02:45 1 Universities
00:09:08 2 Societies and Academies
00:13:14 3 Periodicals
00:17:32 4 Encyclopedias and dictionaries
00:23:33 5 Popularization of science
00:24:41 5.1 British coffeehouses
00:26:12 5.2 Public lectures
00:28:58 5.3 Popular science in print
00:33:30 6 Women in science
00:38:25 7 Disciplines
00:38:34 7.1 Astronomy
00:42:01 7.2 Chemistry
00:45:08 8 See also
Listening is a more natural way of learning, when compared to reading. Written language only began at around 3200 BC, but spoken language has existed long ago.
Learning by listening is a great way to:
- increases imagination and understanding
- improves your listening skills
- improves your own spoken accent
- learn while on the move
- reduce eye strain
Now learn the vast amount of general knowledge available on Wikipedia through audio (audio article). You could even learn subconsciously by playing the audio while you are sleeping! If you are planning to listen a lot, you could try using a bone conduction headphone, or a standard speaker instead of an earphone.
Listen on Google Assistant through Extra Audio:
Other Wikipedia audio articles at:
Upload your own Wikipedia articles through:
Speaking Rate: 0.8870738353949407
Voice name: en-US-Wavenet-D
I cannot teach anybody anything, I can only make them think.
- Socrates
SUMMARY
=======
The history of science during the Age of Enlightenment traces developments in science and technology during the Age of Reason, when Enlightenment ideas and ideals were being disseminated across Europe and North America. Generally, the period spans from the final days of the 16th and 17th-century Scientific revolution until roughly the 19th century, after the French Revolution (1789) and the Napoleonic era (1799–1815). The scientific revolution saw the creation of the first scientific societies, the rise of Copernicanism, and the displacement of Aristotelian natural philosophy and Galen’s ancient medical doctrine. By the 18th century, scientific authority began to displace religious authority, and the disciplines of alchemy and astrology lost scientific credibility.
While the Enlightenment cannot be pigeonholed into a specific doctrine or set of dogmas, science came to play a leading role in Enlightenment discourse and thought. Many Enlightenment writers and thinkers had backgrounds in the sciences and associated scientific advancement with the overthrow of religion and traditional authority in favour of the development of free speech and thought. Broadly speaking, Enlightenment science greatly valued empiricism and rational thought, and was embedded with the Enlightenment ideal of advancement and progress. As with most Enlightenment views, the benefits of science were not seen universally; Jean-Jacques Rousseau criticized the sciences for distancing man from nature and not operating to make people happier.Science during the Enlightenment was dominated by scientific societies and academies, which had largely replaced universities as centres of scientific research and development. Societies and academies were also the backbone of the maturation of the scientific profession. Another important development was the popularization of science among an increasingly literate population. Philosophes introduced the public to many scientific theories, most notably through the Encyclopédie and the popularization of Newtonianism by Voltaire as well as by Émilie du Châtelet, the French translator of Newton's Principia. Some historians have marked the 18th century as a drab period in the history of science; however, the century saw significant advancements in the practice of medicine, mathematics, and physics; the development of biological taxonomy; a new understanding of magnetism and electricity; and the maturation of chemistry as a discipline, which established the foundations of modern chemistry.