Polish Aviation Museum

Polish Aviation Museum | Muzeum Lotnictwa Polskiego | Kraków | WALKAROUND

Polish Aviation Museum in Cracow (pol. Muzeum Lotnictwa Polskiego w Krakowie) is the biggest aviation museum in Poland. It is located at former airfield Rakowice-Czyżyny. The museum also houses a massive library and photographic archives, with over 30000 positions on the list. Museum itself was ranked eighth in the list of the best aviation museums in the world by CNN television. Aircraft collection is over 150 large, with various aircraft from both NATO and Warsaw Pact designs. Footage above was recorded on 25th of May. The museum is definitely a 'must visit' for any aviation enthusiast out there.

Feel free to visit my footage from AMAZING Polish Air Force Museum:


Planes in the museum collection:
AEG Wagner Eule
Aero Ae-145
Aero L-29 Delfin
Aero L-60 Brigadyr
Albatros B.II
Albatros C.I
Albatros H-1
Albatros L.101
Antonow An-26
Avia B.33 (licensed Ił-10)
Aviatik C.III
Blériot XI (replica)
Bücker Bü 131B Jungmann
Cessna A-37B Dragonfly
Cessna UC-78A Bobcat
Curtiss Export Hawk II
Dassault Mirage 5
De Havilland 82A Tiger Moth II
De Havilland Vampire
EM-10 Bielik (replica)
Friedrich Etrich Taube
Farman IV (replika)
Fouga CM.170 Magister
Geest Moewe IV
Grigorowicz M-15
Halberstadt CL.II
Heinkel HE-5f
Ił-14S (VEB)
Ił-28R
Ił-28U
Jak-11
Jak-12
Jak-17UTI (Jak-17W)
Jak-18
Jak-23
Jak-40
Levavasseur Antoinette
Let L-200A Morava LFG
Roland D.VI Li-2 (lic. DC-3)
LTV A-7 Corsair II
LVG B.II
LWD Szpak 2
LWD Szpak 4T
LWD Żuraw
Messerschmitt Me 209 V4
MiG-19 PM
MiG-21 F-13
MiG-21 PF
MiG-21 PFM
MiG-21 MF
MiG-21 bis
MiG-21 R
MiG-21 U
MiG-21 UM
MiG-21 US
MiG-23 MF
MiG-29 GT
North American T-6G Texan
Northrop F-5E Tiger II
Piper L-4A Grasshopper
Po-2 LNB
PWS-26 (only one surviving in the world)
PZL M-15 (Belphegor)
PZL M-4 Tarpan
PZL P.11c (only one surviving in the world)
PZL S-4 Kania 3
PZL-104 Wilga 35
PZL-105 Flaming
PZL-106A Kruk
PZL-130 Orlik
PZL-130 Orlik T
PZL MD-12F
RWD-13
RWD-21
Saab J 35J Draken
Saab AJSF 37 Viggen
Sopwith F.1 Camel
Stinson L-5 Sentinel (fuselage)
Sukhoi Su-20
Sukhoi Su-22M4
Sukhoi Su-22UM3
Sukhoi Su-7 BKŁ
Sukhoi Su-7 BM
SUkhoi Su-7 UM
Supermarine Spitfire LF Mk XVIE
Tupolev Tu-134A
Tupolec Tu-2S
WSK Lim-1 (licensed MiG-15)
WSK Lim-2 (licensed MiG-15)
WSK Lim-5 (licensed MiG-17)
WSK Lim-6bis (licensed MiG-17)
WSK Lim-6M (licensed MiG-17)
WSK Lim-6MR (licensed MiG-17)
WSK SBLim-2 (licensed MiG-15)
WSK SBLim-2A (licensed MiG-15)
WSK-Mielec M-15 (Belphegor)
WSK TS-11 Iskra bis B
WSK TS-8 Bies
WSK TS-9 Junak 3
Zlín Z-26 Trenér Kukułka
Zeppelin-Staaken R.VI

Exploring The Polish Aviation Museum in Krakow

Exploring The Polish Aviation Museum in Krakow, Poland
50°04′39.61″N 19°59′32.7″E

Walk around the Polish Aviation Museum Krakow 6th August 2019

This is the very impressive Aviation Museum in Krakow, have decided to make several videos rather than just the long one due to the number of aircraft and Helicopters involved. As the vast majority of aircraft are kept outside clearly they suffer from the elements however the upside is a complete lack of barriers meaning you can get up close and personal with the exhibits.

Polish Aviation Museum - Kraków (VLOG)

A great musuem for anyone who like history and/or aviation !
Just remember, that with the amount of things to see and read there, it can really take you a couple hours. A very big and very well put together muzeum.
Ticket prices:

- normal ticket: 15 PLN
- children & students: 7 PLN
- children under 7 years old: free entry
For more information you can go to this link
(muzeum website)


Music:
1. Dizaro - Safari
2. AMARIA - STARS OF HOPE ACROSS THE NIGHT

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Polish Aviation Museum in Krakow

Krakow Aviation Museum shows one of the biggest collections of aircrafts in the world, including airplanes from the first two decades of the 20th century.

Exploring the wonderful Polish Aviation Museum (Krakow) 4K - Part One

Muzeum Lotnictwa Polskiego is the largest aviation museum in Poland. Filmed in late 2019. The museum is very easy to get to, as there are many trams from the centre of krakow that will take you there (approx 25 minute ride) The museum is located at a former airfield Rakowice-Czyżyny.

AEG Wagner Eule
Aero Ae-145
Aero L-29 Delfín (NATO: Maya)
Aero L-60E Brigadyr
Albatros B.IIa (L.30)
Albatros C.I
Albatros H.1
Albatros L.101
Amiot AAC.1 Toucan (Junkers Ju 52/3m g14e)
Antonov An-26 (NATO: Curl-A)
Avia B.33 (licenced Il-10, NATO: Beast)
Aviatik C.III
Blériot XI
Bücker Bü 131 B Jungmann
Cessna A-37B Dragonfly
Cessna UC-78A Bobcat
Curtiss Hawk II
Dassault Mirage 5 BA
De Havilland DH.100 Vampire
De Havilland DH.112 Sea Venom
De Havilland Tiger Moth Mk.II
DFW C.V
EM-10 Bielik (mock-up)
Fouga CM.170 Magister
Friedrich Etrich Taube
Geest Möwe IV
Grigorovich M-15
Halberstadt CL.II
Hawker Siddeley Harrier GR.3
Ilyushin (VEB) IL-14S (NATO: Crate)
Ilyushin Il-28R (NATO: Beagle)
Ilyushin SIl-28 (Il-28U, NATO: Mascot)
Let L-200A Morava
LFG Roland D.VIb
Ling Temco Vought A-7P Corsair II
Lisunov Li-2 (licenced DC-3, NATO: Cab)
Lockheed F-104S ASA-M Starfighter
LVG B.II
LWD Szpak 2
LWD Zuch 2
Messerschmitt Bf 109G-6
Messerschmitt Me 209 V1
Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-19PM (NATO: Farmer-E)
Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 bis (NATO: Fishbed N)
Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21F-13 (NATO: Fishbed-C)
Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21M (NATO: Fishbed-J)
Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21MF (NATO: Fishbed-J) '6504'
Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21MF (NATO: Fishbed-J) '9107'
Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21PF '1901' (NATO: Fishbed-D)
Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21PF '2004' (NATO: Fishbed-D)
Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21PFM (type 94A) (NATO: Fishbed-F)
Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21PFM (type 94N) (NATO: Fishbed-F)
Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21R (NATO: Fishbed-H)
Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21U (NATO: Mongol-A)
Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21UM (NATO: Mongol-B)
Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21US (NATO: Mongol-B)
Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-23MF (NATO: Flogger-B)
Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-29GT (UB) (NATO: Fulcrum-B)
North American T-6G Texan
Northrop F-5E Tiger II
Pieniążek Kukułka
Piper L-4A Grasshopper
Polikarpov Po-2LNB
PWS-26
PZL I-22 Iryda M-93K
PZL M-15
PZL M-20 Mewa
PZL M-4 Tarpan
PZL P.11c
PZL-101 Gawron
PZL-105 Flaming
PZL-105L Flaming
PZL-106 Kruk (prototype)
PZL-106AR Kruk
PZL-130 Orlik
PZL-130T Orlik
Republic F-105D Thunderchief
Republic F-84F Thunderstreak
RWD-13
RWD-21
SAAB AJSF 37 Viggen
SAAB J 35J Draken
SEPECAT Jaguar GR.1
Sopwith F.1 Camel
Stinson L-5 Sentinel
Sukhoi Su-20 (NATO: Fitter-C)
Sukhoi Su-22M4 '3005' (NATO: Fitter-K)
Sukhoi Su-22M4 '3305' (NATO: Fitter-K)
Sukhoi Su-22UM3k (NATO: Fitter-H)
Sukhoi Su-7BKL (NATO: Fitter-A)
Sukhoi Su-7BM (NATO: Fitter-A)
Sukhoi Su-7U (NATO: Moujik)
Supermarine Spitfire LF Mk.XVIE
TS-11 Iskra bis B
TS-11 Iskra bis B Red 1
TS-11 Iskra bis B (cross section)
TS-11 Iskra bis DF '1409'
TS-11R Iskra bis DF
Tupolev Tu-134A (NATO: Crusty)
Tupolev Tu-2S (NATO: Bat)
WSK An-2R
WSK An-2TD (NATO: Colt)
WSK Lim-1 (licenced MiG-15, NATO: Fagot)
WSK Lim-2 (licenced MiG-15bis, NATO: Fagot)
WSK Lim-5 (licenced MiG-17F, NATO: Fresco)
WSK Lim-6bis (NATO: Fresco)
WSK Lim-6M (NATO: Fresco)
WSK Lim-6MR (NATO: Fresco)
WSK MD-12F
WSK SB Lim-2 (NATO: Midget)
WSK SB Lim-2A (NATO: Midget)
WSK TS-8 Bies
WSK TS-9 Junak 3
Yakovlev Yak-11 (NATO: Moose)
Yakovlev Yak-12 (NATO: Creek)
Yakovlev Yak-17UTI (Yak-17V; NATO: Magnet)
Yakovlev Yak-18 (NATO: Max)
Yakovlev Yak-23 (NATO: Flora)
Yakovlev Yak-40 (NATO: Codling)
Zlín Z-26 Trener
Zlín Z-50LA

Muzeum Lotnictwa Polskiego w Krakowie / Polish Aviation Museum

Film by Krzysztof Gluszek
Music by Tenacious Orchestra


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Polish Aviation Museum - Cracow. 2016.11.20

Polish Aviation Museum - Cracow. 2016.11.20
Muzeum Lotnistwa Polskiego w Krakowie

Polish Aviation Museum Cracow

Polish Aviation Museum (Polish: Muzeum Lotnictwa Polskiego w Krakowie) is a large museum of old aircraft and aircraft engines in Kraków, Poland. It is located at the site of the no-longer functional Kraków-Rakowice-Czyżyny Airport. This airfield, established by Austria-Hungary in 1912, is one of the oldest in the world. The museum opened in 1964, after the airfield closed in 1963.

The collection as of 2005 consists of over 200 aircraft, including sailplanes and some 100 aircraft engines. Several of the aircraft displayed are unique on the world scale. Some of the exhibits are only in their initial stages. The museum houses a large aviation library and photographic archives.

The museum has 22 extremely rare airplanes that once were part of the personal collection of Hermann Göring, which before World War II were displayed in Deutsche Luftfahrtsammlung museum in Berlin. These planes were evacuated during the war to rescue them from Allied bombing (the museum was destroyed in air raids) and were found abandoned on Polish territory after the war ended. From time to time museums in Germany have unofficially expressed interest in having some of these planes returned, especially those that are of great significance to German aviation history. As of 2009 there is no sign that this will happen in the foreseeable future.

The museum has very few Polish planes from the years 1918-1939, as these were almost all destroyed during the war, including those displayed in Polish pre-war aviation museums. The only two examples of prewar Polish military aircraft in the collection: a PZL P.11 (the only surviving example in the world) and a PWS-26, survived only because they were diplayed as war trophies by the Germans, and so were part of the above mentioned collection acquired after the war. In addition, a few Polish pre-war civilian planes were returned by Romania after the war and eventually found their way to the museum.

In contrast, the museum has an essentially complete collection of all airplane types developed or used by Poland after 1945.

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Krakow Poland ????????

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Mil Mi-8PS Papal helicopter, Polish Aviation Museum, Kraków, Lesser Poland, Poland, Europe

The Mi-8 helicopter used by His Holiness John Paul II during his pilgrimage to Poland in 1979 has been put on display in the Polish Aviation Museum at Krakow. Carrying military serial 620, the Mi-8 is shown in the colours of the VIP flight - 36 Specjalny Pułk Lotnictwa Transportowego, or 36th Special Regiment of Aviation Transport in English. Pope John Paul II was notable as the first non-Italian Pope for over 455 years, and the first Pope from Poland. The addition of this helicopter to the collection not only continues the recording of the 1979 visit but also matches up with the street address of the museum - which was renamed to al. John Paul II in memory of his papacy of over 26 years. Mi-8 is a medium transport helicopter, powered by two turboshaft engines, designed in early 1960s at the Mil Design Bureau in the USSR as the successor of the piston powered Mi-4. The first prototype, powered by a single engine first flew in 1961. The next prototype, powered by two engines TV-2, first flew in 1962. Mi-8 became one of the world's most popular transport helicopters. Numerous versions, like transport, passenger, VIP transport and rescue were developed as well as meny specialized subvariants, like minelayer, minesweeper and flying command post. More than 9,000 were built and the production of the development version continues. The Mi-14 amphibian helicopter is based on Mi-8 design. In 1976 another Mi-17 version was developed (in Russia designated Mi-8M), powered by more powerful TV-3 engines, enhancing the helicopter's performance in hot and high environment, which was utilized by the Soviet army during the war in Afghanistan. Polish military aviation has operated the Mi-8 since 1968 in the transport, rescue, executive and passenger version, and the Mi-17 since 1987. Three Mi-8s are also operated by the Police aviation. The example on display, serial number 10620, tail number 620 is a Mi-8 of the military VIP transport variant. It was manufactured in 1973 at the Kazan Helicopter Plant. It served with the No. 36 Special Air Transport Regiment at Warsaw. It was one of Mi-8 used during JPII's visits in Poland. The helicopter was donated to the Museum in December 2009.

Russian flight suit, Polish Aviation Museum, Kraków, Lesser Poland, Poland, Europe

A flight suit is a full body garment, worn while flying aircraft such as military airplanes, gliders and helicopters. These suits are generally made to keep the wearer warm, as well as being practical (plenty of pockets), and durable (including fire retardant). Its appearance is usually similar to a jumpsuit. A military flight suit may also show rank insignia. It is sometimes used as a combat uniform in Close Quarters Battle or Visit, Board, Search, and Seizure situations, for its practicality. As aviation developed in unheated open cockpits, the need for warm clothing quickly became apparent, as did the need for multiple pockets with closures of buttons, snaps, or zippers to prevent loss of articles during maneuvers. Various types of flight jackets and pants coverings were developed and, during World War I, leather two-piece outfits were common among pilots to ward off the chill caused by propwash and the cold of low-oxygen high altitude fly飞行服ing. Leather quickly became the preferred material due to its durability and the protection it offered against flying debris such as insect strikes during climb-outs and landings, and oil thrown off by the simple rotary and inline motors of the time. Australian aviator Frederick Sidney Cotton's experience with high level and low-temperature flying led Cotton in 1917 to develop the revolutionary new Sidcot suit, a flying suit which solved the problem pilots had in keeping warm in the cockpit. This flying suit, with improvements, was widely used by the RAF until the 1950s.
By the time World War II started in earnest, electrically heated suits were introduced by Lion Apparel in conjunction with General Electric for patrol and bomber crews who routinely operated at high altitudes above 30,000 feet, where air temperatures could get so cold that flesh could freeze instantly to any metal it touched. As pressurized cabins came into operation, the necessity of bulky leather and shearling jackets and pants began to fade. For example, pilots, navigators, and bombardiers of a B-17 operating in Europe in 1944 wore their officer's uniforms under an A-2 flight jacket, comfortably due to the enclosed and heated cabin, but the waist gunners needed electrically heated suits as they fired their guns through open window gunports. When the B-29 Superfortress was introduced in the fight against Japan, along with remote-controlled coordinated gun turrets, the fully pressurized crew cabin made bulky flight gear obsolete. Where bomber pilots could wear their dress uniforms as flight gear, fighter pilots needed a uniform that functioned in the tight confines of the typical fighter plane cockpit. The AN-S-31 flight suit was developed for the US Army Air Corps and featured two button-down breast pockets and two button-down shin pockets that could be accessed from the sitting position. The US Navy used a slightly different model that featured slanted pockets with zippers. The material used was either wool or tight-weave cotton for wind resistance and fire protection. The need for short-duration fire protection was demonstrated early during that war. As technology advanced, the fire-protective flight suit, helmets, goggles, masks, gloves and footwear were designed and used. The footwear often could be cut to appear like civilian shoes in the country where the crew member would land if shot down. Flak jackets were also developed to give bomber crews some protection from flying shrapnel, though these increased the overall weight of the airplane and reduced the effective bombload that could be carried. With the era of jet flight and improved focus on safety, however, fully fire-retardant materials were required. It was also simpler to make a one-piece suit when it would potentially have to fit over existing clothing or various types of under-garments. Also, with the coming of jet flight came the development of the G-suit, a special kind of flight suit (worn alone or in combination with a traditional flight suit) that protected the wearer from the physical stress of acceleration by compressing the body to keep blood from pooling in the legs. As the pilot executed high-G combat maneuvers, his blood would literally be pulled from his head and shift downwards into his lower body, starving the brain of oxygen and causing a blackout. The G-suit was designed to allow some retention of blood in the pilot's head, allowing him to execute high-G turns for sustained periods of time. In the 1950s and 1960s even more specialized suits needed to be developed for high-altitude survelliance (such as with the U-2 and SR-71 aircraft) and space flight. These would include full pressurization, and would be the precursor to today's space suits. The current flight suit that is standard for most air forces and navies is made of Nomex, a fabric made from spun aramid that is lightweight and fire resistant. The flame retardant capabilities of this material make it ideal for protecting aviators in case of a fire.

Polish Aviation Museum, Kraków, Lesser Poland, Poland, Europe

The Polish Aviation Museum is a large museum of old aircraft and aircraft engines in Kraków, Poland. It is located at the site of the no-longer functional Kraków-Rakowice-Czyżyny Airport. This airfield, established by Austria-Hungary in 1912, is one of the oldest in the world. The museum opened in 1964, after the airfield closed in 1963. Has been scored as eighth world's best aviation museum by CNN television. For the first half century of its existence the museum used four hangars of the former airfield to display its exhibits. These buildings were not originally designed for this purpose and suffered from various inadequacies, notably insufficient heating in winter. The situation improved when a new main building for the museum opened on 18 September 2010. The collection consists of over 200 aircraft as of 2005. Several of the aircraft displayed are unique on the world scale, including sailplanes and some 100 aircraft engines. Some of the exhibits are only in their initial stages. The museum houses a large aviation library and photographic archives. The museum has 22 extremely rare airplanes that once were part of the personal collection of Hermann Göring, which before World War II were displayed in Deutsche Luftfahrtsammlung museum in Berlin. These planes were evacuated during the war to rescue them from Allied bombing (the museum itself was destroyed in air raids) and were found abandoned on Polish territory after the war ended. Contemporary museums in Germany had unofficially expressed interest in having some of these planes transferred, especially those that are of great significance to German aviation history. As of 2009 however, there was no sign that this would happen in the foreseeable future. The museum has very few Polish planes from the years 1918-1939, as these were almost all destroyed during the Nazi German occupation of Poland, including those displayed in Polish pre-war aviation museums. The only two examples of prewar Polish military aircraft in the collection: a PZL P.11 (the only surviving example in the world) and a PWS-26, survived only because they were displayed as war trophies by the Germans, and so were part of the above mentioned collection acquired after the war. In addition, a few Polish pre-war civilian planes were returned by Romania after the war and eventually found their way to the museum. In contrast, the museum has an essentially complete collection of all airplane types developed or used by Poland after 1945. On the occasion of the 2009 sixtieth anniversary of the signing of the North Atlantic Treaty (April 4, 1949), as well as the tenth anniversary of Polish accession to NATO (12 March 1999), the Museum has undertaken the project of the museum, whose main objective is to create a permanent exhibition of aircraft the colors of the Allies. The first exhibit of this collection is the MiG-29 in the colors of Polish, tactical number 4115. At the middle of the exhibit will be restored German camouflage and markings, as the aircraft was the first Soviet structure used within the Alliance by the Luftwaffe. As part of the exchange, in exchange for the helicopter Mi-2, the museum received a Mirage 5 BA tactical number BA-03 from the Royal Museum of the Armed Forces in Brussels. On 19 November 2008, the Museum has reached another exhibit, supersonic fighter aircraft Lockheed F-104 Starfighter S / ASA-M, handed over free of charge by Aeronautica Militare Italiana (Italian Air Force). The aircraft was one of the last Starfighterów in the service, he came from an air base in Grazzanise near Naples. This copy has been produced under license in Italy, his tactical number is RS-05, serial MM6876. Another aircraft expected at the exhibition is a Republic F-84F Thunderstreak (no tact. FU-36), Sepecat Jaguar GR.1 (no. tact. XX730), Ling-Temco-Vought A-7P Corsair II (No. tactical 5502), Hawker Siddeley Harrier Gr.3 (No. tactical XW919).

MiG-21, Polish Aviation Museum, Kraków, Lesser Poland, Poland, Europe

The Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 is a supersonic jet fighter aircraft, designed by the Mikoyan-Gurevich Design Bureau in the Soviet Union. It was popularly nicknamed Balalaika, from the aircraft's planform-view resemblance to the Russian stringed musical instrument or ołówek by Polish pilots due to the shape of its fuselage. Early versions are considered second-generation jet fighters, while later versions are considered to be third-generation jet fighters. Some 50 countries over four continents have flown the MiG-21, and it still serves many nations a half-century after its maiden flight. The fighter made aviation records. At least by name, it is the most-produced supersonic jet aircraft in aviation history and the most-produced combat aircraft since the Korean War, and it had the longest production run of a combat aircraft (1959 to 1985 over all variants). The MiG-21 jet fighter was a continuation of Soviet jet fighters, starting with the subsonic MiG-15 and MiG-17, and the supersonic MiG-19. A number of experimental Mach 2 Soviet designs were based on nose intakes with either swept-back wings, such as the Sukhoi Su-7, or tailed deltas, of which the MiG-21 would be the most successful. Development of what would become the MiG-21 began in the early 1950s, when Mikoyan OKB finished a preliminary design study for a prototype designated Ye-1 in 1954. This project was very quickly reworked when it was determined that the planned engine was underpowered; the redesign led to the second prototype, the Ye-2. Both these and other early prototypes featured swept wings the first prototype with delta wings as found on production variants was the Ye-4. The Ye-4 made its maiden flight on 16 June 1955 and made its first public appearance during the Soviet Aviation Day display at Moscow's Tushino airfield in July 1956. In the West, due to the lack of available information, early details of the MiG-21 often were confused with those of similar Soviet fighters of the era. In one instance, Jane's All the World's Aircraft 1960--1961 listed the Fishbed as a Sukhoi design and used an illustration of the Su-9 'Fishpot'. The MiG-21 was the first successful Soviet aircraft combining fighter and interceptor characteristics in a single aircraft. It was a lightweight fighter, achieving Mach 2 with a relatively low-powered afterburning turbojet, and is thus comparable to the American Lockheed F-104 Starfighter and Northrop F-5 Freedom Fighter and the French Dassault Mirage III. Its basic layout was used for numerous other Soviet designs; delta-winged aircraft included Su-9 interceptor and the fast E-150 prototype from MiG bureau while the mass-produced successful front fighter Su-7 and Mikoyan's I-75 experimental interceptor combined a similar fuselage shape with swept-back wings. However, the characteristic layout with the shock cone and front air intake did not see widespread use outside the USSR and finally proved to have limited development potential, mainly because of the very small space available for the radar. Like many aircraft designed as interceptors, the MiG-21 had a short range. This was not helped by a design defect where the center of gravity shifted rearwards once two-thirds of the fuel had been used. This had the effect of making the plane uncontrollable, resulting in an endurance of only 45 minutes in clean condition. The issue of the short endurance and low fuel capacity of the MiG-21F, PF, PFM, S/SM and M/MF variants though each had a somewhat greater fuel capacity than its predecessor led to the development of the MT and SMT variants. These had a range increase of 250 km (155 mi) compared to the MiG-21SM, but at the cost of worsening all other performance figures (such as a lower service ceiling and slower time to altitude). The delta wing, while excellent for a fast-climbing interceptor, meant any form of turning combat led to a rapid loss of speed. However, the light loading of the aircraft could mean that a climb rate of 235 m/s (46,250 ft/min) was possible with a combat-loaded MiG-21bis, not far short of the performance of the later F-16A. Given a skilled pilot and capable missiles, it could give a good account of itself against contemporary fighters. Its G-limits were increased from +7Gs in initial variants to +8.5Gs in the latest variants. It was replaced by the newer variable-geometry MiG-23 and MiG-27 for ground support duties. However, not until the MiG-29 would the Soviet Union ultimately replace the MiG-21 as a maneuvering dogfighter to counter new American air superiority types. The MiG-21 was exported widely and continues to be used. The aircraft's simple controls, engine, weapons, and avionics were typical of Soviet-era military designs.

Junkers Ju 52/3m, Polish Aviation Museum, Kraków, Lesser Poland, Poland, Europe

The Junkers Ju 52 was a German trimotor transport aircraft manufactured from 1932 to 1945. It saw both civilian and military service during the 1930s and 1940s. In a civilian role, it flew with over twelve air carriers including Swissair and Deutsche Luft Hansa as an airliner and freight hauler. In a military role, it flew with the Luftwaffe as a troop and cargo transport and briefly as a medium bomber. The Ju 52 continued in postwar service with military and civilian air fleets well into the 1980s. The Ju 52 was similar to the company's previous Junkers W33, although larger. In 1930, Ernst Zindel and his team designed the Ju 52 at the Junkers works at Dessau. The aircraft's unusual corrugated duralumin metal skin, pioneered by Junkers during World War I, strengthened the whole structure. The Ju 52 had a low cantilever wing, the midsection of which was built into the fuselage, forming its underside. It was formed around four pairs of circular cross-section duralumin spars with a corrugated surface that provided torsional stiffening. A narrow control surface, with its outer section functioning as the aileron, and the inner section functioning as a flap, ran along the whole trailing edge of each wing panel, well separated from it. The inner flap section lowered the stalling speed and the arrangement became known as the Doppelflügel, or double wing. The outer sections of this operated differentially as ailerons, projecting slightly beyond the wingtips with control horns. The strutted horizontal stabilizer carried horn-balanced elevators which again projected and showed a significant gap between them and the stabilizer, which was adjustable in-flight. All stabilizer surfaces were corrugated. The fuselage was of rectangular section with a domed decking, all covered with corrugated light alloy. There was a port side passenger door just aft of the wings, with windows stretching forward to the pilots' cabin. The main undercarriage was fixed and divided; some aircraft had wheel fairings, others not. There was a fixed tailskid, or a later tailwheel. Some aircraft were fitted with floats or skis instead of the main wheels. In its original configuration, designated the Ju 52/1m, the Ju 52 was a single-engined aircraft, powered by either a BMW or Junkers liquid-cooled engine. However, the single-engine model was underpowered, and after seven prototypes had been completed, all subsequent Ju 52s were built with three radial engines as the Ju 52/3m (drei motoren - three engines). Originally powered by three Pratt & Whitney Hornet radial engines, later production models mainly received 574 kW (770 hp) BMW 132 engines, a licence-built refinement of the Pratt & Whitney design. Export models were also built with 447 kW (600 hp) Pratt & Whitney Wasp R-1340 and 578 kW (775 hp) Bristol Pegasus VI engines. The two wing-mounted radial engines of the Ju 52/3m had full-chord cowlings and diverted noticeably, being mounted at an almost perpendicular angle to the tapered wing's receding leading edge. The central engine had a half-chord cowling like a Townend ring as the fuselage behind it was increasing in diameter, though some later aircraft had deeper cowlings. Production Ju 52/3m aircraft flown by Luft Hansa before World War II, as well as Luftwaffe-flown Ju 52s flown during the war, usually used an air start system to turn over their trio of radial engines, using a common compressed air supply that also operated the main wheels' brakes. Hitler used a Deutsche Luft Hansa Ju 52 for campaigning the 1932 German election, preferring flying to transport by train. After he became German Chancellor in 1933, Hans Baur became his personal pilot, and Hitler was provided with a personal Ju 52. Named Immelmann II after the World War I ace Max Immelmann, it carried the registration D-2600. As his power and importance grew, Hitler's personal air force grew to nearly 50 aircraft, based at Berlin Tempelhof Airport and made up of mainly Ju 52s, which also flew other members of his cabinet and war staff. In September 1939 at Baur's suggestion, his personal Ju 52 Immelman II was replaced by the four-engined Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor, although Immelman II remained his backup aircraft for the rest of World War II. The first major operation for the aircraft was in Operation Weserübung, the attack on Denmark and Norway on 9 April 1940. Fifty-two Ju 52s from 1. and 8. Staffel in Kampfgeschwader 1 transported a company of Fallschirmjäger and a battalion of infantry to the northern part of Jutland, and captured the airfield at Aalborg, vital to support the operation in southern Norway. Several hundred Ju 52s were used to transport troops to Norway in the first days of this campaign. Later, Ju 52's participated in the attack on the Netherlands on 10 May 1940, where they were deployed in the first large-scale air attack with paratroops in history during the Battle for The Hague.

MiG-21 MF Fishbed, Polish Aviation Museum, Kraków, Lesser Poland, Poland, Europe

The Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 is a supersonic jet fighter aircraft, designed by the Mikoyan-Gurevich Design Bureau in the Soviet Union. It was popularly nicknamed Balalaika, from the aircraft's planform-view resemblance to the Russian stringed musical instrument or ołówek by Polish pilots due to the shape of its fuselage. Early versions are considered second-generation jet fighters, while later versions are considered to be third-generation jet fighters. Some 50 countries over four continents have flown the MiG-21, and it still serves many nations a half-century after its maiden flight. The fighter made aviation records. At least by name, it is the most-produced supersonic jet aircraft in aviation history and the most-produced combat aircraft since the Korean War, and it had the longest production run of a combat aircraft (1959 to 1985 over all variants). The MiG-21 jet fighter was a continuation of Soviet jet fighters, starting with the subsonic MiG-15 and MiG-17, and the supersonic MiG-19. A number of experimental Mach 2 Soviet designs were based on nose intakes with either swept-back wings, such as the Sukhoi Su-7, or tailed deltas, of which the MiG-21 would be the most successful. Development of what would become the MiG-21 began in the early 1950s, when Mikoyan OKB finished a preliminary design study for a prototype designated Ye-1 in 1954. This project was very quickly reworked when it was determined that the planned engine was underpowered; the redesign led to the second prototype, the Ye-2. Both these and other early prototypes featured swept wings the first prototype with delta wings as found on production variants was the Ye-4. The Ye-4 made its maiden flight on 16 June 1955 and made its first public appearance during the Soviet Aviation Day display at Moscow's Tushino airfield in July 1956. In the West, due to the lack of available information, early details of the MiG-21 often were confused with those of similar Soviet fighters of the era. In one instance, Jane's All the World's Aircraft 1960--1961 listed the Fishbed as a Sukhoi design and used an illustration of the Su-9 'Fishpot'. The MiG-21 was the first successful Soviet aircraft combining fighter and interceptor characteristics in a single aircraft. It was a lightweight fighter, achieving Mach 2 with a relatively low-powered afterburning turbojet, and is thus comparable to the American Lockheed F-104 Starfighter and Northrop F-5 Freedom Fighter and the French Dassault Mirage III. Its basic layout was used for numerous other Soviet designs; delta-winged aircraft included Su-9 interceptor and the fast E-150 prototype from MiG bureau while the mass-produced successful front fighter Su-7 and Mikoyan's I-75 experimental interceptor combined a similar fuselage shape with swept-back wings. However, the characteristic layout with the shock cone and front air intake did not see widespread use outside the USSR and finally proved to have limited development potential, mainly because of the very small space available for the radar. Like many aircraft designed as interceptors, the MiG-21 had a short range. This was not helped by a design defect where the center of gravity shifted rearwards once two-thirds of the fuel had been used. This had the effect of making the plane uncontrollable, resulting in an endurance of only 45 minutes in clean condition. The issue of the short endurance and low fuel capacity of the MiG-21F, PF, PFM, S/SM and M/MF variants though each had a somewhat greater fuel capacity than its predecessor led to the development of the MT and SMT variants. These had a range increase of 250 km (155 mi) compared to the MiG-21SM, but at the cost of worsening all other performance figures (such as a lower service ceiling and slower time to altitude). The delta wing, while excellent for a fast-climbing interceptor, meant any form of turning combat led to a rapid loss of speed. However, the light loading of the aircraft could mean that a climb rate of 235 m/s (46,250 ft/min) was possible with a combat-loaded MiG-21bis, not far short of the performance of the later F-16A. Given a skilled pilot and capable missiles, it could give a good account of itself against contemporary fighters. Its G-limits were increased from +7Gs in initial variants to +8.5Gs in the latest variants. It was replaced by the newer variable-geometry MiG-23 and MiG-27 for ground support duties. However, not until the MiG-29 would the Soviet Union ultimately replace the MiG-21 as a maneuvering dogfighter to counter new American air superiority types. The MiG-21 was exported widely and continues to be used. The aircraft's simple controls, engine, weapons, and avionics were typical of Soviet-era military designs.

Mirage 5 BA, Polish Aviation Museum, Kraków, Lesser Poland, Poland, Europe

The Dassault Mirage 5 is a supersonic attack aircraft designed in France by Dassault Aviation during the 1960s, and manufactured in France and a number of other countries. It was derived from Dassault's popular Mirage III fighter, and spawned several variants of its own. The first Mirage 5 flew on 19 May 1967. It looked much like the Mirage III, except it had a long slender nose that extended the aircraft's length by about half a metre. A pitot tube was distinctively moved from the tip of the nose to below the nose in the majority of Mirage 5 variants. The Mirage 5 retained the IIIE's twin DEFA guns, but added two additional pylons, for a total of seven. Maximum warload was 4,000 kg (8,800 lb). Provision for the SEPR rocket engine was deleted. Rising tensions in the Middle East led French President Charles de Gaulle to embargo the Israeli Mirage 5s on 3 June 1967. The Mirages continued to roll off the production line, even though they were embargoed, and by 1968 the batch was complete and the Israelis had provided final payments. In late 1969, the Israelis, who had pilots in France testing the aircraft, requested that the aircraft be transferred to Corsica, in theory to allow them to continue flight training during the winter. The French government became suspicious when the Israelis also tried to obtain long-range fuel tanks and cancelled the move.The Israelis finally gave up trying to get the aircraft and accepted a refund. Some sources claim cooperation with France resumed outside the public's eye and Israel received 50 Mirage 5s in crates from the AdA, while the AdA took over the 50 aircraft originally intended for Israel, as Mirage 5Fs. Officially, Israel claimed to have built the aircraft after obtaining complete blueprints, naming them IAI Nesher. Like the Mirage IIIE, the Mirage 5 was popular with export customers, with different export variants fitted with a wide range of different avionics. While the Mirage 5 had been originally oriented to the clear-weather attack role, with some avionic fits it was refocused to the air-combat mission. As electronic systems became more compact and powerful, it was possible to provide the Mirage 5 with increased capability, even though the rear avionics bay had been deleted, therefore in some sub-versions, Dassault finished up with a reinvented Mirage IIIE. Reconnaissance and two-seat versions of the Mirage 5 were sold, with the designation Mirage 5R, and Mirage 5D respectively. However, a little consideration of the differences between a Mirage III and a Mirage 5 quickly shows that these designations were simply for marketing purposes. There was no clear dividing line between the configuration of a Mirage III reconnaissance or trainer version and that of a Mirage 5 equivalent, and were one and the same in many cases. The Mirage 5 was sold to Abu Dhabi, Belgium, Colombia, Egypt, Gabon, Libya, Pakistan, Peru, Venezuela, and Zaire, with the usual list of subvariant designations and variations in kit. The Belgian aircraft were fitted with mostly US avionics, and Egyptian aircraft fitted with the MS2 attack avionics system from the Dassault-Dornier Alpha Jet. In 1978 and 1980, Israel sold a total of 35 of their Neshers plus 4 Nesher trainer aircraft (Nesher Ts) to Argentina where they were locally known first as Daggers and after their last upgrade as Fingers. The Argentines lost two IIIEA and 11 Daggers during the Falklands War in 1982, and, as a measure of solidarity, the Peruvians transferred 10 their Mirage 5s to Argentina, under the name Mirage Mara to help make good their losses. Chile incorporated some Mirage 5s under name Mirage Elkan. A total of 582 Mirage 5s were built, including 51 Israeli Neshers. In 1968, the Belgian government ordered 106 Mirage 5s from Dassault to re-equip No 3 Wing at Bierset air base. All aircraft but the first one were to be license-built by SABCA in Belgium. Component production at the SABCA Haren plant near Brussels was followed by assembly at the SABCA plant at Gosselies airfield, near Charleroi. The ATAR engines were produced by FN Moteurs at this company's Liège plant.[citation needed] SABCA production included three versions: Mirage 5BA for the ground attack role, Mirage 5BR for the reconnaissance role and Mirage 5BD for training and conversion. By the end of the 1980s, a MIRage Safety Improvement Program (MIRSIP) was agreed to by parliament, calling for 20 low-time Mirages to be upgraded. Initial plans included a new more powerful engine, but this idea was abandoned to limit cost. The upgrade eventually included a new state of the art cockpit, a new ejection seat, and canards to improve takeoff performance and overall maneuverability. A new government canceled the MIRSIP however. SABCA, having a watertight contract, was allowed to carry out the update. After completion, the Belgian government sold all 20 aircraft to Chile at a loss.

SEPECAT Jaguar GR.1, Polish Aviation Museum, Kraków, Lesser Poland, Poland, Europe

The SEPECAT Jaguar is an Anglo-French jet ground attack aircraft, originally used by the British Royal Air Force and the French Armée de l'Air in the close air support and nuclear strike role, and still in service with several export customers, notably the Indian Air Force and the Royal Air Force of Oman. Originally conceived in the 1960s as jet trainer with a light ground attack capability, the requirement for the aircraft soon changed to include supersonic performance, reconnaissance and tactical nuclear strike roles. A carrier-based variant was also planned for French service, but this was cancelled in favour of the cheaper Dassault Super Étendard. The airframes were manufactured by SEPECAT (Société Européenne de Production de l'avion Ecole de Combat et d'Appui Tactique), a joint venture between Breguet and the British Aircraft Corporation, one of the first major joint-Anglo-French military aircraft programs. The Jaguar was exported to India, Oman, Ecuador and Nigeria. With various air forces, the Jaguar was used in numerous conflicts and military operations in Mauritania, Chad, Iraq, Bosnia, and Pakistan, as well as providing a ready nuclear delivery platform for Britain, France, and India throughout the latter half of the Cold War and beyond. In the Gulf War, the Jaguar was praised for its reliability and was a valuable coalition resource. The aircraft served with the Armée de l'Air as the main strike/attack aircraft until 1 July 2005, and with the Royal Air Force until the end of April 2007. It was replaced by the Panavia Tornado and the Eurofighter Typhoon in the RAF and the Dassault Rafale in the Armée de l'Air. India plans in the long term to replace its Jaguar fleet with the developing Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft (AMCA). The RAF accepted delivery of the first of 165 single-seat Jaguar GR1s (the service designation of the Jaguar S) with 54(F) squadron in 1974. These were supplemented by 35 two-seat trainers, the Jaguar T2 (previously Jaguar B). The Jaguar S and B had a more comprehensive nav/attack system than the A and E models (consisting of a Ferranti/Marconi NAVWASS (NAVigation and Weapon-Aiming Sub-System) and a Plessey 10 Way Weapon Control System) used by the Armée de l'Air. RAF Jaguars were used for rapid deployment and regional reinforcement, and others flew in the tactical nuclear strike role, carrying the WE.177 bomb. Beginning in 1975 with 6 Squadron, followed by 54 Squadron based at RAF Coltishall, and a 'Shadow squadron', a reserve unit with a peacetime training role 226 OCU based at RAF Lossiemouth, Jaguar squadrons were declared operational to SACEUR with the British nuclear weapon WE.177. 14 Squadron and 17 Squadron based at RAF Bruggen followed by 1977. 20 Squadron and 31 Squadron also based at RAF Bruggen brought the RAF Jaguar force to its peak strength of six squadrons plus the OCU, each of twelve aircraft equipped with eight WE.177 nuclear weapons. Two further squadrons, 2 Squadron and 41 Squadron based at RAF Laarbruch and RAF Coltishall respectively, were primarily tasked with tactical reconnaissance. From 1975 the OCU's wartime role was as an operational squadron in the front line assigned to SACEUR with 12 Jaguar aircraft, eight WE.177 nuclear bombs, and a variety of conventional weapons. In April 1975, a single Jaguar was used to test the aircraft's rough airstrip capacity, by landed and taking off multiple times from the M55 motorway, the final test flight was conducted with a full weapons load; the ability was never used in service but was considered useful as improvised runways might be the only runways left available in a large-scale European conflict. In a high-intensity European war the role of the Jaguar was to support land forces on the Continent in resisting a Soviet assault on Western Europe, striking targets beyond the forward edge of the battlefield should a conflict escalate. The apparent mismatch between aircraft numbers and nuclear bombs was a consequence of RAF staff planners concluding that there would be one-third attrition of Jaguars in an early conventional phase, leaving the survivors numerically strong enough to deliver the entire allocated stockpile of 56 nuclear bombs. From December 1983 75 Jaguar GR1s and 14 T2s were updated to the GR1A and T2A standards with FIN1064 navigation and attack systems replacing the original NAVWASS. At about the same time, most were also re-engined with Adour 104 engines and were fitted with the ability to carry Sidewinder air-to-air missiles or AN-ALQ-101(V)-10 electronic countermeasures pods under the wings.

MiG-23MF, Polish Aviation Museum, Kraków, Lesser Poland, Poland, Europe

The Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-23 is a variable-geometry fighter aircraft, designed by the Mikoyan-Gurevich design bureau in the Soviet Union. It is considered to belong to the Soviet third generation jet fighter category, along with similarly aged Soviet fighters such as the MiG-25 Foxbat. It was the first attempt by the Soviet Union to design look-down/shoot-down radar and one of the first to be armed with beyond visual range missiles, and the first MiG production fighter aircraft to have intakes at the sides of the fuselage. Production started in 1970 and reached large numbers with over 5,000 aircraft built. Today the MiG-23 remains in limited service with various export customers.
The basic design was also used as the basis for the Mikoyan MiG-27, a dedicated ground-attack variant. Among many minor changes, the MiG-27 replaced the MiG-23's nose-mounted radar system with an optical panel holding a laser designator and a TV camera. Ground-attack variants of the MiG-23 were also produced, and these generally saw better export success, retaining more multi-mission capability. The MiG-23's predecessor, the MiG-21 (NATO reporting name Fishbed), was fast and agile, but limited in its operational capabilities by its primitive radar, short range, and limited weapons load (restricted in some aircraft to a pair of short-range R-3/K-13 (AA-2 Atoll) air-to-air missiles). The MiG-23 was to be a heavier, more powerful machine designed to remedy these deficiencies, and match Western aircraft like the F-4 Phantom. The new fighter was to feature a totally new S-23 sensor and weapon system capable of firing beyond-visual-range (BVR) missiles. A major design consideration was take-off and landing performance. Existing Soviet fast jets required very long runways which, combined with their limited range, restricted their tactical usefulness. The VVS demanded the new aircraft have a much shorter take-off run. Low-level speed and handling was also to be improved over the MiG-21. This led Mikoyan to consider two options: lift jets, to provide an additional lift component, and variable-geometry wings, which had been developed by TsAGI for both clean-sheet aircraft designs and adaptations of existing designs. The first prototype, called 23-01 but also known as the MiG-23PD, was a tailed delta similar to the MiG-21 but with two lift jets in the fuselage. However, it became apparent very early that this configuration was unsatisfactory, as the lift jets became useless dead weight once airborne. The second prototype, known as 23-11, featured variable-geometry wings which could be set to angles of 16, 45 and 72 degrees, and it was clearly more promising. The maiden flight of 23--11 took place on 10 June 1967, and three more prototypes were prepared for further flight and system testing. All featured the Tumansky R-27-300 turbojet engine with a thrust of 7850 kp. The order to start series production of the MiG-23 was given in December 1967. The General Dynamics F-111 and McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II were the main Western influences on the MiG-23. The Soviets, however, wanted a much lighter, single-engined fighter to maximize agility. Both the F-111 and the MiG-23 were designed as fighters, but the heavy weight and inherent stability of the F-111 turned it into a long-range interdictor and kept it out of the fighter role. The MiG-23's designers kept the MiG-23 light and agile enough to dogfight with enemy fighters. Western and Russian aviation historians usually differ in respect to the MiG-23's combat record, in part due to the bias in favor of their respective national aircraft industries. They also usually accept claims going along with their respective political views since usually many conflicting and contradictory reports are written and accepted by their respective historians. Little pictorial evidence has been published confirming MiG-23 air to air losses and victories, with the exception of a SAAF Mirage F-1CZ damaged by a Cuban MiG-23ML and subsequently written-off in a rough landing, the Libyan MiG-23s shot down by U.S. Navy Grumman F-14 Tomcats in the Gulf of Sidra incident (1989), and two pictures of Syrian MiG-23s shot down in 1982 by Israeli forces. Because of its distinctive appearance with large air intakes on both sides of the fuselage the aircraft was nicknamed Cheburashka by some Soviet pilots after a popular Russian cartoon character representing a fictional animal with big ears. The nickname did not stick and was later firmly assigned to Antonov An-72/74, although to this day it is sometimes applied to different aircraft with similar exterior features, including the USAF A-10 Thunderbolt II.

American flight suit, Polish Aviation Museum, Kraków, Lesser Poland, Poland, Europe

A flight suit is a full body garment, worn while flying aircraft such as military airplanes, gliders and helicopters. These suits are generally made to keep the wearer warm, as well as being practical (plenty of pockets), and durable (including fire retardant). Its appearance is usually similar to a jumpsuit. A military flight suit may also show rank insignia. It is sometimes used as a combat uniform in Close Quarters Battle or Visit, Board, Search, and Seizure situations, for its practicality. As aviation developed in unheated open cockpits, the need for warm clothing quickly became apparent, as did the need for multiple pockets with closures of buttons, snaps, or zippers to prevent loss of articles during maneuvers. Various types of flight jackets and pants coverings were developed and, during World War I, leather two-piece outfits were common among pilots to ward off the chill caused by propwash and the cold of low-oxygen high altitude fly飞行服ing. Leather quickly became the preferred material due to its durability and the protection it offered against flying debris such as insect strikes during climb-outs and landings, and oil thrown off by the simple rotary and inline motors of the time. Australian aviator Frederick Sidney Cotton's experience with high level and low-temperature flying led Cotton in 1917 to develop the revolutionary new Sidcot suit, a flying suit which solved the problem pilots had in keeping warm in the cockpit. This flying suit, with improvements, was widely used by the RAF until the 1950s.
By the time World War II started in earnest, electrically heated suits were introduced by Lion Apparel in conjunction with General Electric for patrol and bomber crews who routinely operated at high altitudes above 30,000 feet, where air temperatures could get so cold that flesh could freeze instantly to any metal it touched. As pressurized cabins came into operation, the necessity of bulky leather and shearling jackets and pants began to fade. For example, pilots, navigators, and bombardiers of a B-17 operating in Europe in 1944 wore their officer's uniforms under an A-2 flight jacket, comfortably due to the enclosed and heated cabin, but the waist gunners needed electrically heated suits as they fired their guns through open window gunports. When the B-29 Superfortress was introduced in the fight against Japan, along with remote-controlled coordinated gun turrets, the fully pressurized crew cabin made bulky flight gear obsolete. Where bomber pilots could wear their dress uniforms as flight gear, fighter pilots needed a uniform that functioned in the tight confines of the typical fighter plane cockpit. The AN-S-31 flight suit was developed for the US Army Air Corps and featured two button-down breast pockets and two button-down shin pockets that could be accessed from the sitting position. The US Navy used a slightly different model that featured slanted pockets with zippers. The material used was either wool or tight-weave cotton for wind resistance and fire protection. The need for short-duration fire protection was demonstrated early during that war. As technology advanced, the fire-protective flight suit, helmets, goggles, masks, gloves and footwear were designed and used. The footwear often could be cut to appear like civilian shoes in the country where the crew member would land if shot down. Flak jackets were also developed to give bomber crews some protection from flying shrapnel, though these increased the overall weight of the airplane and reduced the effective bombload that could be carried. With the era of jet flight and improved focus on safety, however, fully fire-retardant materials were required. It was also simpler to make a one-piece suit when it would potentially have to fit over existing clothing or various types of under-garments. Also, with the coming of jet flight came the development of the G-suit, a special kind of flight suit (worn alone or in combination with a traditional flight suit) that protected the wearer from the physical stress of acceleration by compressing the body to keep blood from pooling in the legs. As the pilot executed high-G combat maneuvers, his blood would literally be pulled from his head and shift downwards into his lower body, starving the brain of oxygen and causing a blackout. The G-suit was designed to allow some retention of blood in the pilot's head, allowing him to execute high-G turns for sustained periods of time. In the 1950s and 1960s even more specialized suits needed to be developed for high-altitude survelliance (such as with the U-2 and SR-71 aircraft) and space flight. These would include full pressurization, and would be the precursor to today's space suits. The current flight suit that is standard for most air forces and navies is made of Nomex, a fabric made from spun aramid that is lightweight and fire resistant. The flame retardant capabilities of this material make it ideal for protecting aviators in case of a fire.